In a region often perceived through a lens of uniformity, particularly in its treatment of women, the Middle East presents a tapestry of contrasts and complexities. This report is a comparative study of women’s socio-political and economic status in Iran, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The analysis considers political, social, and economic factors, such as population size, the impact of sanctions, and relationships with Western countries as pivotal variables.
Based on literacy rates, access to education, employment opportunities, roles in civil society, and family rights, the UAE appears to be the most successful among the five in advancing the socio-political and economic status of women.
Major Strides for Emirati Women
The literacy rate for Emirati women is estimated at 95.8% and over 70% of university graduates are women, a remarkable statistic. Women comprise 46% of the workforce, according to the Federal Competitiveness and Statistics Authority, and hold 50% of the seats in the Federal National Council as of 2019, the highest rate of female parliamentary participation in the Arab world. In 2015, Sheikha Lubna Al Qasimi was appointed Minister of State for Tolerance, the first woman to hold a ministerial post in the UAE. The Emirati ambassador to the United Nations, Lana Zaki Nusseibeh, is also a woman. The UAE’s “20 for 2020” initiative, aims to increase women’s participation in the engineering sector, challenging traditional gender roles.
Emirati women are also leaders in philanthropy and civil society. Organizations such as the Dubai Women Establishment and the Abu Dhabi Businesswomen Council are platforms to influence policies and societal attitudes.
Legal reforms have enhanced women’s rights in divorce, child custody, and financial independence, primarily through changes in the Personal Status Law. However, significant discrimination remains. Laws still give male guardians authority over women and there are shorter sentences for men who kill a female relative than for women who kill male relatives.
As in all the other societies discussed in this paper, men are the ultimate rulers and acceptance of women’s evolving roles is not universal or uniform across all strata of society. Still, the trend towards greater gender equality in the UAE is clear.
Iranian Women’s Struggle and Resilience
Iran is an interesting contrast to the UAE. Similar to their Emirati sisters, Iranian women have made major strides in literacy and education – with the female literacy rate soaring from about 35% in the 1970s to over 80% by the early 21st century. By 2019, women constituted nearly 50% of university students, according to the Statistical Center of Iran.
However, the journey from classrooms to boardrooms has remained fraught. Discriminatory laws and societal norms continue to limit employment opportunities. Per World Bank data, Iranian women’s labor market participation rate in 2020 was only about 19%. Women are also disadvantaged in politics and government under a system where a male cleric is supreme leader and all presidents have been male.
The personal lives of Iranian women remain complex. A progressive family law enacted under the Shah was revoked after the revolution and women regressed to discrimination in matters of divorce, child custody, and financial independence. The legal age of marriage for girls, initially reduced to nine and then set at 13, further complicated the landscape, impacting educational and employment opportunities. Divorce, which remains much more difficult to obtain for women than for men, often leaves women grappling with societal stigmas as well as legal hurdles. Custody laws favor fathers and women often need the consent of male guardians for various transactions.
Societal norms also play a significant role in shaping women’s lives.The expectation to prioritize family over career, the pressure to conform to traditional gender roles, and the monitoring of government-enforced public “morality” all create an environment where women’s choices are often limited. Yet women have led in the creation of online-based businesses and their historic protests in 2022 against the obligatory hijab were an inspiration to women’s rights advocates worldwide.
Omani Women Have Made Remarkable Progress
In the 1970s, Omani women had a literacy rate of merely 2%. By 2015, the rate surged to 91%, a remarkable transformation underpinned by Oman’s Vision 2040 plan. Educational reforms led to more women in higher education, reaching about 50% enrollment by 2020. Dr. Rawya Saud Al Busaidi, Oman’s first female higher education minister, exemplifies this advancement.
Omani women have also made significant strides in the workforce, representing 46% of those employed. In 2019, an Omani woman, Aisha al-Kharusi, broke stereotypes by becoming a CEO in a traditionally male-dominated industry as a senior legal associate in the Oman Investment Authority among her other leading roles in the public and private sector.
Omani women have also led civil society groups such as the Omani Women’s Association. A 2018 campaign advanced gender equality legislation. HH Sayyida Basma Al Said is a noted advocate for mental health and women’s rights in Oman and a founder of the mental health clinic Whispers of Serenity Clinic, a center geared toward treating women.
A 2008 amendment to the Omani Personal Status Law addressed critical issues such as divorce and child custody and a 2010 court case set a new standard for fairer divorce settlements.
Omani women’s progress has extended to rural communities. In 2017, a village elected its first female leader, a significant departure from traditional norms. Meanwhile, Thuraya Al Riyami was elected as the first female member of Oman’s Majlis Al Shura and heads the body’s Research and Consultancy Committee.
Saudi Arabian Women Have Advanced in Education and Employment
In Saudi Arabia, a nation steeped in traditions, a significant transformation is underway. Integral to the Kingdom’s Vision 2030, Saudi women are transitioning from primarily being homemakers to major players in the country’s socio-economic development.
According to UNESCO, Saudi women’s literacy rate reached 93% as of 2021. Women’s participation in the workforce is nearing the Vision 2030 goal of 30% and women are taking larger roles in sectors including finance, education and even the military. Sarah Al-Suhaimi became the first woman to chair Saudi Arabia’s stock exchange, Tadawul, while businesswoman Lubna Olayan is the first woman to lead a Saudi bank.
Saudi women’s engagement in civil society is also burgeoning. An example is the establishment of the Saudi Women’s Rights Group, which advocates for women’s legal rights and social freedoms.
Reforms in the guardianship system, which once required women to seek male permission for various activities, have been relaxed, and laws amended to ensure fairer divorce and child custody processes. For instance, the Saudi judiciary now allows women to retain custody of their children post-divorce under specific conditions. An amendment allows Saudi women to travel abroad without a male guardian’s permission.
Financial independence is another area where Saudi women are making strides. Women now have the right to open their own businesses without male consent. The government’s support for female entrepreneurs is evident in initiatives such as the ‘Monsha’at’ program, which provides funding and training for women-led startups. Noura Al Kaabi founded her own successful fashion business.
The legal framework in Saudi Arabia is evolving to support women’s rights, yet societal norms still play a pivotal role. The acceptance and encouragement of women’s evolving roles by families and communities are vital for the sustainability of these changes. An illustrative case is lifting the driving ban for women in Saudi Arabia in 2018. However, as in Iran, the most ardent proponents of such changes often face jail time instead of praise.
Qatari Women Have Entered Prominent Roles
With near-universal literacy rates and a notable presence of women in higher education, particularly at Qatar University, Qatar has seen a shift in societal attitudes. This change is attributed mainly to the efforts of the Qatar Foundation, led by Sheikha Moza bint Nasser, the wife of a former Qatari emir. Another prominent Qatari woman, Hessa Sultan Al Jaber, served as Minister of Information and Communications Technology. A Ph.D. in Computer Science, she reflects the progress of women in fields traditionally dominated by men.
Supported by the Qatar National Vision 2030, Qatari women now have a 58.1% rate of participation in the workforce. Sheikha Hanadi bint Nasser Al Thani, a well-known Qatari businesswoman who founded the Qatar Ladies Investment Company, is an example of the growing presence of Qatari women in high-level professional roles.
In civil society, organizations such as the Qatar Women’s Sports Committee and the Qatar Women’s Association advocate for women’s rights and participation in public life. The Doha International Family Institute researches and promotes progressive policies on family issues. Aisha Alfardan, Vice Chairwoman of the Qatari Businesswomen Association, has advocated for female entrepreneurs in Qatar.
Family rights, including divorce, child custody, and financial independence, are governed by Islamic principles but have moved towards more equitable practices. For instance, changes in family status and inheritance laws have been progressively implemented, though cases are not publicly documented due to privacy concerns.
Overall, the narrative of Qatari women is marked by contrasts between tradition and modernity and between educational advancements and evolving societal norms. Overall progress can be seen in the story of Buthaina Al Ansari, a senior human resources professional and motivational speaker who champions women’s empowerment in the corporate world while maintaining her cultural roots.
Conclusion
In evaluating the status of women across Iran, Oman, Qatar, the UAE, and Saudi Arabia, it’s crucial to consider the size of these countries and the impact of international sanctions.
The UAE, perhaps because of its relatively small size, has been more nimble in promoting change and has emerged as a leader in women’s empowerment in the region. This small nation has utilized its wealth, mainly from oil and diversified investments, to create a relatively progressive environment for women. High female literacy rates and significant participation in higher education testify to the UAE’s commitment to women’s education. The nation’s prosperity and progressive policies have facilitated women’s active participation in the workforce and ascension to leadership roles. The UAE’s approach to civil society engagement and family rights further underscores its progressive stance. Modernized family laws in the UAE, offering better protection and rights to women in divorce, child custody, and inheritance, reflect a commitment to advancing women’s rights in public and private spheres.
In contrast, Iran, a much larger country, has lagged. Despite high literacy rates and educational attainment among women, economic and social empowerment is significantly hindered. U.S.-led sanctions on Iran since the U.S. withdrawal from a landmark nuclear agreement in 2018 have increased inflation and reduced foreign investment, disproportionately affecting women’s employment opportunities. Additionally, Iran’s larger population and diverse societal norms create a complex environment for women’s rights and progress is uneven and often slow, particularly in more conservative rural areas.
In all five countries analyzed, however, women have made major strides in recent decades. Women’s rights advocates can point to the progress made in their neighboring countries to advance their own aims for dignity and independence.
Maryam Rezaei Zadeh is a Faculty Assistant and Mentor for Persian House, part of the Persian Capstone year-long program at the Persian Flagship Program, University of Maryland, and a contributor to the Middle East Voices program at the Stimson Center. Her research and academic interests lie at the intersection of international security and relations, focusing on empowering and advocating for women’s and marginalized groups’ rights in the Middle East.
References
Populations of Middle East Countries
| Country | Population (as of 2023) |
| Iran | 89,482,257 |
| Oman | 4,677,923 |
| Saudi Arabia | 37,202,557 |
| Qatar | 2,726,432 |
| UAE | 9,553,294 |
Female Literacy Rates in Middle East Countries
| Country | Female Literacy Rate (15-64 years old) |
| Iran | 82.4% |
| Oman | 91.1% |
| Saudi Arabia | 91% |
| Qatar | 97.3% |
| UAE | 95.8% |
Employment Status of Women in Middle East Countries
| Country | Employment |
| Iran | Women labor force participation rate: Approximately 16.8% (as of 2019) |
| Women unemployment rate: Approximately 20.7% (as of 2019) |
| Women in sectoral distribution: |
| Agriculture: Around 8% |
| Industry: Approximately 24% |
| Services: Approximately 68% |
| Oman | Women labor force participation: Rate Approximately 30.5% (as of 2019) |
| Women unemployment rate: Approximately 14.8% (as of 2019) |
| Women in sectoral distribution: |
| Agriculture: Around 5% |
| Industry: Approximately 20% |
| Services: Approximately 75% |
| Saudi Arabia | Women labor force participation rate: Approximately 23.2% (as of 2019) |
| Women unemployment rate: Approximately 31.7% (as of 2019) |
| Women in sectoral distribution: |
| Agriculture: Around 4% |
| Industry: Approximately 21% |
| Services: Approximately 75% |
| Qatar | Women labor force participation rate: Approximately 51.8% (as of 2019) |
| Women unemployment rate: Approximately 9.2% (as of 2019) |
| Women in sectoral distribution |
| Agriculture: Around 2% |
| Industry: Approximately 18% |
| Services: Approximately 80% |
| UAE | Women labor force participation rate: Approximately 46.6% (as of 2019) |
| Women unemployment rate: Approximately 12.1% (as of 2019) |
| Women in sectoral distribution: |
| Agriculture: Around 3% |
| Industry: Approximately 19% |
| Services: Approximately 78% |
Literacy References
- Statistical Center of Iran, National Census 2016
- UNESCO Institute for Statistics, “Adult and Youth Literacy”
- World Bank, “Literacy rate, adult female (% of females ages 15 and above)”
- National Centre for Statistics and Information, Oman, “Statistical Yearbook 2020”
- General Authority for Statistics, Saudi Arabia, “Statistical Yearbook 2020”
- Qatar Statistics Authority, “Annual Statistical Report 2020”
- Federal Competitiveness and Statistics Authority, UAE, “Statistical Yearbook 2020”
Employment References
- Statistical Center of Iran, “Labor Force Survey 2019”
- World Bank, “Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+)”
- World Economic Forum, “Global Gender Gap Report 2020”
- National Centre for Statistics and Information, Oman
- Qatar Planning and Statistics Authority, “Labor Market Sample Survey 2019”
- General Authority for Statistics, Saudi Arabia, “Labor Market Survey 2019”
- Federal Competitiveness and Statistics Authority, UAE, “Statistical Yearbook 2020”
The Status of Women’s Rights in the Middle East
By Maryam Rezaei Zadeh
Middle East & North Africa
In a region often perceived through a lens of uniformity, particularly in its treatment of women, the Middle East presents a tapestry of contrasts and complexities. This report is a comparative study of women’s socio-political and economic status in Iran, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The analysis considers political, social, and economic factors, such as population size, the impact of sanctions, and relationships with Western countries as pivotal variables.
Based on literacy rates, access to education, employment opportunities, roles in civil society, and family rights, the UAE appears to be the most successful among the five in advancing the socio-political and economic status of women.
Major Strides for Emirati Women
The literacy rate for Emirati women is estimated at 95.8% and over 70% of university graduates are women, a remarkable statistic. Women comprise 46% of the workforce, according to the Federal Competitiveness and Statistics Authority, and hold 50% of the seats in the Federal National Council as of 2019, the highest rate of female parliamentary participation in the Arab world. In 2015, Sheikha Lubna Al Qasimi was appointed Minister of State for Tolerance, the first woman to hold a ministerial post in the UAE. The Emirati ambassador to the United Nations, Lana Zaki Nusseibeh, is also a woman. The UAE’s “20 for 2020” initiative, aims to increase women’s participation in the engineering sector, challenging traditional gender roles.
Emirati women are also leaders in philanthropy and civil society. Organizations such as the Dubai Women Establishment and the Abu Dhabi Businesswomen Council are platforms to influence policies and societal attitudes.
Legal reforms have enhanced women’s rights in divorce, child custody, and financial independence, primarily through changes in the Personal Status Law. However, significant discrimination remains. Laws still give male guardians authority over women and there are shorter sentences for men who kill a female relative than for women who kill male relatives.
As in all the other societies discussed in this paper, men are the ultimate rulers and acceptance of women’s evolving roles is not universal or uniform across all strata of society. Still, the trend towards greater gender equality in the UAE is clear.
Iranian Women’s Struggle and Resilience
Iran is an interesting contrast to the UAE. Similar to their Emirati sisters, Iranian women have made major strides in literacy and education – with the female literacy rate soaring from about 35% in the 1970s to over 80% by the early 21st century. By 2019, women constituted nearly 50% of university students, according to the Statistical Center of Iran.
However, the journey from classrooms to boardrooms has remained fraught. Discriminatory laws and societal norms continue to limit employment opportunities. Per World Bank data, Iranian women’s labor market participation rate in 2020 was only about 19%. Women are also disadvantaged in politics and government under a system where a male cleric is supreme leader and all presidents have been male.
The personal lives of Iranian women remain complex. A progressive family law enacted under the Shah was revoked after the revolution and women regressed to discrimination in matters of divorce, child custody, and financial independence. The legal age of marriage for girls, initially reduced to nine and then set at 13, further complicated the landscape, impacting educational and employment opportunities. Divorce, which remains much more difficult to obtain for women than for men, often leaves women grappling with societal stigmas as well as legal hurdles. Custody laws favor fathers and women often need the consent of male guardians for various transactions.
Societal norms also play a significant role in shaping women’s lives.The expectation to prioritize family over career, the pressure to conform to traditional gender roles, and the monitoring of government-enforced public “morality” all create an environment where women’s choices are often limited. Yet women have led in the creation of online-based businesses and their historic protests in 2022 against the obligatory hijab were an inspiration to women’s rights advocates worldwide.
Omani Women Have Made Remarkable Progress
In the 1970s, Omani women had a literacy rate of merely 2%. By 2015, the rate surged to 91%, a remarkable transformation underpinned by Oman’s Vision 2040 plan. Educational reforms led to more women in higher education, reaching about 50% enrollment by 2020. Dr. Rawya Saud Al Busaidi, Oman’s first female higher education minister, exemplifies this advancement.
Omani women have also made significant strides in the workforce, representing 46% of those employed. In 2019, an Omani woman, Aisha al-Kharusi, broke stereotypes by becoming a CEO in a traditionally male-dominated industry as a senior legal associate in the Oman Investment Authority among her other leading roles in the public and private sector.
Omani women have also led civil society groups such as the Omani Women’s Association. A 2018 campaign advanced gender equality legislation. HH Sayyida Basma Al Said is a noted advocate for mental health and women’s rights in Oman and a founder of the mental health clinic Whispers of Serenity Clinic, a center geared toward treating women.
A 2008 amendment to the Omani Personal Status Law addressed critical issues such as divorce and child custody and a 2010 court case set a new standard for fairer divorce settlements.
Omani women’s progress has extended to rural communities. In 2017, a village elected its first female leader, a significant departure from traditional norms. Meanwhile, Thuraya Al Riyami was elected as the first female member of Oman’s Majlis Al Shura and heads the body’s Research and Consultancy Committee.
Saudi Arabian Women Have Advanced in Education and Employment
In Saudi Arabia, a nation steeped in traditions, a significant transformation is underway. Integral to the Kingdom’s Vision 2030, Saudi women are transitioning from primarily being homemakers to major players in the country’s socio-economic development.
According to UNESCO, Saudi women’s literacy rate reached 93% as of 2021. Women’s participation in the workforce is nearing the Vision 2030 goal of 30% and women are taking larger roles in sectors including finance, education and even the military. Sarah Al-Suhaimi became the first woman to chair Saudi Arabia’s stock exchange, Tadawul, while businesswoman Lubna Olayan is the first woman to lead a Saudi bank.
Saudi women’s engagement in civil society is also burgeoning. An example is the establishment of the Saudi Women’s Rights Group, which advocates for women’s legal rights and social freedoms.
Reforms in the guardianship system, which once required women to seek male permission for various activities, have been relaxed, and laws amended to ensure fairer divorce and child custody processes. For instance, the Saudi judiciary now allows women to retain custody of their children post-divorce under specific conditions. An amendment allows Saudi women to travel abroad without a male guardian’s permission.
Financial independence is another area where Saudi women are making strides. Women now have the right to open their own businesses without male consent. The government’s support for female entrepreneurs is evident in initiatives such as the ‘Monsha’at’ program, which provides funding and training for women-led startups. Noura Al Kaabi founded her own successful fashion business.
The legal framework in Saudi Arabia is evolving to support women’s rights, yet societal norms still play a pivotal role. The acceptance and encouragement of women’s evolving roles by families and communities are vital for the sustainability of these changes. An illustrative case is lifting the driving ban for women in Saudi Arabia in 2018. However, as in Iran, the most ardent proponents of such changes often face jail time instead of praise.
Qatari Women Have Entered Prominent Roles
With near-universal literacy rates and a notable presence of women in higher education, particularly at Qatar University, Qatar has seen a shift in societal attitudes. This change is attributed mainly to the efforts of the Qatar Foundation, led by Sheikha Moza bint Nasser, the wife of a former Qatari emir. Another prominent Qatari woman, Hessa Sultan Al Jaber, served as Minister of Information and Communications Technology. A Ph.D. in Computer Science, she reflects the progress of women in fields traditionally dominated by men.
Supported by the Qatar National Vision 2030, Qatari women now have a 58.1% rate of participation in the workforce. Sheikha Hanadi bint Nasser Al Thani, a well-known Qatari businesswoman who founded the Qatar Ladies Investment Company, is an example of the growing presence of Qatari women in high-level professional roles.
In civil society, organizations such as the Qatar Women’s Sports Committee and the Qatar Women’s Association advocate for women’s rights and participation in public life. The Doha International Family Institute researches and promotes progressive policies on family issues. Aisha Alfardan, Vice Chairwoman of the Qatari Businesswomen Association, has advocated for female entrepreneurs in Qatar.
Family rights, including divorce, child custody, and financial independence, are governed by Islamic principles but have moved towards more equitable practices. For instance, changes in family status and inheritance laws have been progressively implemented, though cases are not publicly documented due to privacy concerns.
Overall, the narrative of Qatari women is marked by contrasts between tradition and modernity and between educational advancements and evolving societal norms. Overall progress can be seen in the story of Buthaina Al Ansari, a senior human resources professional and motivational speaker who champions women’s empowerment in the corporate world while maintaining her cultural roots.
Conclusion
In evaluating the status of women across Iran, Oman, Qatar, the UAE, and Saudi Arabia, it’s crucial to consider the size of these countries and the impact of international sanctions.
The UAE, perhaps because of its relatively small size, has been more nimble in promoting change and has emerged as a leader in women’s empowerment in the region. This small nation has utilized its wealth, mainly from oil and diversified investments, to create a relatively progressive environment for women. High female literacy rates and significant participation in higher education testify to the UAE’s commitment to women’s education. The nation’s prosperity and progressive policies have facilitated women’s active participation in the workforce and ascension to leadership roles. The UAE’s approach to civil society engagement and family rights further underscores its progressive stance. Modernized family laws in the UAE, offering better protection and rights to women in divorce, child custody, and inheritance, reflect a commitment to advancing women’s rights in public and private spheres.
In contrast, Iran, a much larger country, has lagged. Despite high literacy rates and educational attainment among women, economic and social empowerment is significantly hindered. U.S.-led sanctions on Iran since the U.S. withdrawal from a landmark nuclear agreement in 2018 have increased inflation and reduced foreign investment, disproportionately affecting women’s employment opportunities. Additionally, Iran’s larger population and diverse societal norms create a complex environment for women’s rights and progress is uneven and often slow, particularly in more conservative rural areas.
In all five countries analyzed, however, women have made major strides in recent decades. Women’s rights advocates can point to the progress made in their neighboring countries to advance their own aims for dignity and independence.
Maryam Rezaei Zadeh is a Faculty Assistant and Mentor for Persian House, part of the Persian Capstone year-long program at the Persian Flagship Program, University of Maryland, and a contributor to the Middle East Voices program at the Stimson Center. Her research and academic interests lie at the intersection of international security and relations, focusing on empowering and advocating for women’s and marginalized groups’ rights in the Middle East.
References
Populations of Middle East Countries
Female Literacy Rates in Middle East Countries
Employment Status of Women in Middle East Countries
Literacy References
Employment References
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