Freedom of religion or belief is an inalienable human right; however, as political violence rises globally and civic space shrinks, religious belief or identity is being used to justify and mobilize discrimination and violence against civilians. This past year, for instance, the Central African Republic saw increased reports of the Wagner Group and local authorities detaining, torturing and killing Muslims on the basis of religious identity due to an assumed connection with rebel groups. In Indonesia, violent extremist groups carried out attacks on religious minorities, while authorities called for a nationwide crackdown on blasphemy. And in China, more than one million Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities have been forcibly imprisoned on the basis of ethno-religious affiliation. As we mark the International Day Commemorating the Victims of Acts of Violence Based on Religion or Belief, we need to move beyond commemoration to taking action against this particularly egregious form of human rights abuse.
Effective action by UN member states, however, requires a genuine understanding of context-specific triggers that may lead to or perpetuate religion-related violence. As noted in a 2021 Stimson Center policy brief on this topic, a significant obstacle is that the scholarship and data on religion-related violence remains underdeveloped, including in regards to ongoing conflict contexts. This makes it especially challenging for states to create national action plans or set effective benchmarks for mitigating this type of violence. Given the lack of comprehensive disaggregated data, almost all global and regional studies that touch on religion-related violence adopt a qualitative approach based on examples and anecdotal evidence. At the UN, the same few contexts thus tend to be repeatedly referenced, with member states picking-and-choosing to champion the rights of specific religious or belief minorities based on national interests and political convenience, rather than on objective need.
Despite the dearth of data, what we do know is that conflict can have “significant effects” on religious and belief minorities, warranting special consideration of how minorities may be disproportionately impacted by conflict. All too often religion appears as a factor in mass human rights violations, including in atrocity crimes, as in the case of the 2014 genocide of Yazidis by ISIL in northern Iraq.
Further data on religion-related violence could be cultivated through crowdsourcing methodologies, an approach that would ensure consent for the collection of information and limit risks to communities under threat. Non-governmental organizations, humanitarians, and those with lived experiences of religion-related violence would be best placed to lead data collection efforts. Having civil society guide the collection of data, with support by member states, would help ensure that the analysis of data is used for broadening global understanding, holding member states accountable, and facilitating humanitarian aid to targeted groups.
While UN member states re-iterate their commitment each year to addressing violence based on religion or belief, follow-up action appears to be piecemeal in nature. Over the course of the past decade, the Human Rights Council and General Assembly have respectively maintained their support for the action points laid out in HRC resolution 16/18 (2011), re-adopting them in annual resolutions. However, despite consensus that these points are worthy of prioritization, national implementation differs significantly. As a 2022 Stimson study found, there exists limited motivation and accountability for UN member states to implement the myriad human rights commitments they make in the Human Rights Council and General Assembly, particularly when national discourse on human rights is negative in nature.
Without an objective tracking mechanism, global progress by governments to tackle religious intolerance and related violence remains unknown. Only a handful of countries respond to the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights’ annual request for a progress update on efforts to combat violence against persons based on religion or belief. In 2021, a total of 18 states (out of 193) responded to the High Commissioner, up from 12 in 2020.When member states do provide submissions for the report, they naturally highlight positive progress, with inaction or backsliding conveniently out of sight. Similarly, while the bi-annual thematic reports of the UN Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief do allow for greater scrutiny of individual state action, the breadth of the Rapporteur’s mandate and limited resources are not enough to support this across all states.
The Universal Periodic Review (UPR) Working Group should therefore integrate the framework created by HRC resolution 16/18 as an element of review. This would enable member states and civil society to have a clearer understanding of where state progress is at in meeting the commitments laid out by this foundation-setting resolution. A global review could also invigorate the Istanbul Process, an informal intergovernmental forum that seeks to support state action via the sharing of good practices.
Ultimately, more can and should be done by UN member states to examine religion-related violence and to establish stronger accountability mechanisms. Member states can support the development of disaggregated data on vulnerable religious and belief minorities inside and outside of conflict zones, ensuring those most at risk of harm can be identified and assisted. Secondly, member states should call for a universal review of the fulfillment of Human Rights Council resolution 16/18, ensuring that as many civilians as possible can live free from violence based on religion or belief.
Header Photo: UN Secretary-General António Guterres holds an informal briefing on the UN Plan of Action to Safeguard Religious Sites in September 2019. Credit: UN Photo/Eskinder Debebe.
Religion-Related Violence: Moving Beyond Commemoration to Action
By Julie Gregory
Human Rights & IHL
Freedom of religion or belief is an inalienable human right; however, as political violence rises globally1ACLED reports that the number of political violence incidents rose by 32.3% this past year. ACLED, accessed 9 August 2022, https://acleddata.com/#/dashboard. and civic space shrinks2Civicus rated 117 countries out of 197 as of having “serious civic space restrictions” in November 2021. Civicus, “People Power Under Attack 2021,” Marianna Belalba Barreto, Josef Benedict, Débora Leão, Sylvia Mbataru, Aarti Narsee, Ine Van Severen and Julieta Zurbrigg, (2022), https://findings2021.monitor.civicus.org/, p. 5-6., religious belief or identity is being used to justify and mobilize discrimination and violence against civilians. This past year, for instance, the Central African Republic saw increased reports of the Wagner Group and local authorities detaining, torturing and killing Muslims on the basis of religious identity due to an assumed connection with rebel groups.3United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, 2022 Annual Report, April 2022, p. 46. In Indonesia, violent extremist groups carried out attacks on religious minorities, while authorities called for a nationwide crackdown on blasphemy. And in China, more than one million Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities have been forcibly imprisoned on the basis of ethno-religious affiliation. As we mark the International Day Commemorating the Victims of Acts of Violence Based on Religion or Belief, we need to move beyond commemoration to taking action against this particularly egregious form of human rights abuse.
Effective action by UN member states, however, requires a genuine understanding of context-specific triggers that may lead to or perpetuate religion-related violence.4Aditi Gorur and Julie Gregory, “Violence based on religion or belief: Taking Action at the UN,” Stimson Center, January 2021, https://www.stimson.org/2021/violence-based-on-religion-or-belief-taking-action-at-the-united-nations/, p. 9. As noted in a 2021 Stimson Center policy brief on this topic, a significant obstacle is that the scholarship and data on religion-related violence remains underdeveloped, including in regards to ongoing conflict contexts.5Ibid., p. 5. This makes it especially challenging for states to create national action plans or set effective benchmarks for mitigating this type of violence. Given the lack of comprehensive disaggregated data, almost all global and regional studies that touch on religion-related violence6See for example, United Nations, Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief, A/HRC/49/44. See United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, 2022 Annual Report. See United States of America, Department of State, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom, 2 June 2022. adopt a qualitative approach based on examples and anecdotal evidence. At the UN, the same few contexts thus tend to be repeatedly referenced, with member states picking-and-choosing to champion the rights of specific religious or belief minorities based on national interests and political convenience, rather than on objective need.
Despite the dearth of data, what we do know is that conflict can have “significant effects” on religious and belief minorities, 7United Nations, Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief, A/HRC/49/44: Rights of persons belonging to religious or belief minorities in situations of conflict or insecurity, 2 March 2022, para. 3 warranting special consideration of how minorities may be disproportionately impacted by conflict. All too often religion appears as a factor in mass human rights violations, including in atrocity crimes, 8Ibid., para. 71. as in the case of the 2014 genocide of Yazidis by ISIL in northern Iraq.
Further data on religion-related violence could be cultivated through crowdsourcing methodologies, an approach that would ensure consent for the collection of information9The UN Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief calls for the UN, member states, and the donor community to support the development of “comprehensive, consensual collection and sharing of disaggregated data”, where safe to do so. United Nations, Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief, A/HRC/49/44, para. 79(e). and limit risks to communities under threat. Non-governmental organizations, humanitarians, and those with lived experiences of religion-related violence would be best placed to lead data collection efforts. Having civil society guide the collection of data, with support by member states,10 Ibid. would help ensure that the analysis of data is used for broadening global understanding, holding member states accountable, and facilitating humanitarian aid to targeted groups.
While UN member states re-iterate their commitment each year to addressing violence based on religion or belief, follow-up action appears to be piecemeal in nature. Over the course of the past decade, the Human Rights Council and General Assembly have respectively maintained their support for the action points laid out in HRC resolution 16/18 (2011), re-adopting them in annual resolutions. However, despite consensus that these points are worthy of prioritization, national implementation differs significantly. As a 2022 Stimson study found, there exists limited motivation and accountability for UN member states to implement the myriad human rights commitments they make in the Human Rights Council and General Assembly, particularly when national discourse on human rights is negative in nature.11Lisa Sharland, Julie Gregory and Ilhan Dahir, Strengthening Human Rights: Translating Multilateral Commitments into Action, https://www.stimson.org/2022/strengthening-human-rights-translating-multilateral-commitments-into-action/, p. 1 and 37.
Without an objective tracking mechanism, global progress by governments to tackle religious intolerance and related violence remains unknown. Only a handful of countries respond to the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights’ annual request for a progress update on efforts to combat violence against persons based on religion or belief. In 2021, a total of 18 states (out of 193) responded to the High Commissioner,12United Nations, High Commissioner for Human Rights, A/HRC/49/86: Combating intolerance, negative stereotyping and stigmatization of, and discrimination, incitement to violence and violence against, persons based on religion or belief, 6 January 2022, para. 3. up from 12 in 2020.13United Nations, High Commissioner for Human Rights, A/HRC/46/67: Combating intolerance, negative stereotyping and stigmatization of, and discrimination, incitement to violence and violence against, persons based on religion or belief, 11 January 2022, para. 3 When member states do provide submissions for the report, they naturally highlight positive progress, with inaction or backsliding conveniently out of sight. Similarly, while the bi-annual thematic reports of the UN Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief do allow for greater scrutiny of individual state action, the breadth of the Rapporteur’s mandate and limited resources are not enough to support this across all states.
The Universal Periodic Review (UPR) Working Group should therefore integrate the framework created by HRC resolution 16/18 as an element of review. This would enable member states and civil society to have a clearer understanding of where state progress is at in meeting the commitments laid out by this foundation-setting resolution. A global review could also invigorate the Istanbul Process, an informal intergovernmental forum that seeks to support state action via the sharing of good practices.
Ultimately, more can and should be done by UN member states to examine religion-related violence and to establish stronger accountability mechanisms. Member states can support the development of disaggregated data on vulnerable religious and belief minorities inside and outside of conflict zones, ensuring those most at risk of harm can be identified and assisted. Secondly, member states should call for a universal review of the fulfillment of Human Rights Council resolution 16/18, ensuring that as many civilians as possible can live free from violence based on religion or belief.
Header Photo: UN Secretary-General António Guterres holds an informal briefing on the UN Plan of Action to Safeguard Religious Sites in September 2019. Credit: UN Photo/Eskinder Debebe.
Notes
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